Voting Discrimination in African American Communities

Discrimination in voting has been a prevalent issue in the African American community. Before the Voting Rights Act of 1965 poll taxes, literacy tests, and physical intimidation have prevented African Americans from voting. While this problem is widely recognized as an issue of the past it is still made possible through racial gerrymandering. This is an important matter because it has restricted fully entitled American citizens from voting. In 1870 Congress passed the fifteenth amendment, which gave voting rights to African Americans. Soon after, states began enforcing expensive poll taxes and extensive literacy tests on African Americans before they could vote. Poll taxes were first introduced in 1876 with the intention of being enforced upon blacks and whites. The tax was disproportionately hard on African Americans and especially on freed slaves. The literacy tests issued to African Americans were exceedingly demanding. These tests were up to twenty pages long and included questions such as, â€Å"Where do presidential electors cast ballots for president?† â€Å"Name the rights a person has after he has been indicted by a grand jury.†, according to freerepublic.com. Literacy tests were impractical with the very little formal education given to African Americans. On top of that, physical intimidation and violence from the Ku Klux Klan made it nearly impossible for Blacks to vote. Luckily, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 outlawed discrimination in voting. Today, gerrymanderingShow MoreRelatedThe Voting Rights Act Of 19651288 Words   |  6 Pages1965; these changes positively impacted the minority community. During this year, Congress passed the Voting Rights Act and the Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 helped enforce the 15th Amendment and prohibited racial discrimination in voting. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished quotas based on nationality and allowed Americans to sponsor relatives from their countries of origin. The Voting Rights Act and the Immigration and Naturalization AmendmentsRead MoreThe Beginning Of The Ku Klux Klan749 Words   |  3 Pagesthe southern states by 1870. This Klan is known for its discrimination against African Americans, which has had major effects on today’s society. â€Å"Making or perceiving differences and distinctions,† is the definition of discrimination (Webster dictionary). Not only did they discriminate against African s Americans but also Jews, and Catholics (history,com staff). Since the birth of the KKK society was not only affected by the discrimination of the Klan, but also the activities, and the brutal eventsRead MoreHow Significant Was Lyndon B Johnson in Improving Civil Rights for African Americans?1017 Words   |  5 PagesHow significant was Lyndon B Johnson in improving civil rights for African-Americans during his presidency (1963-69)? Lyndon B Johnson became president in 1963 after the assassination of President John F Kennedy on November 22nd 1963. He formulated many policies including ‘The Great Society’. This was introduced in an aim to end poverty, improve education and rejuvenate cities for all Americans. Johnson also introduced Civil Rights. This act refers to the personal rights a citizen holds whichRead MoreThe Declaration Of Independence : A Significant Year For The Country963 Words   |  4 Pageselection this year is important as both candidates are fighting for and desperately in need of the African-American vote to win. The irony in this election is that not that long ago African-Americans were not even allowed to vote. This paper sets out the historical struggles the African-American people faced in obtaining suffrage. The 1700’s marked the boom of the slave trade. African-Americans could barely get the law to see them as people, let alone give them the right to vote. The DeclarationRead MoreThe Civil Rights Act Of 19641106 Words   |  5 Pages â€Å"After the end of Reconstruction in 1877, southern states and local communities began to enact laws known as segregation or Jim Crow laws. These measures separated the races in public accommodations. Rather than passing one sweeping law, local and state legislators in the South passed a series of laws between 1881 and 1910 that required separate accommodations for blacks and whites in public spaces. These laws were indicative of the hardening of the philosophy of white supremacy throughout theRead MoreThe Beginning Of World War II And The Present Decade1527 Words   |  7 Pagesobjectives; to eliminate racial discrimination within the country, to bring equality among the American citizens, and to provide all Americans with the freedom to vote, an integral right afforded to individuals by the Constitution. These were issues that engulfed the majority of peoples concerns at the time, and therefore needed to be taken care of. In the coming paragraphs I will identify and discuss t hree of these acts and how they came to be and how they have affected the American society to date. TheRead MoreThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration Essay795 Words   |  4 Pagesthe 1965 voting act and Brown V.S Board Of Education which overturned Plessey V.S Ferguson; African Americans went through horrifying ordeals to destroy the old Jim Crow system but it was never eructated but in actuality redesigned in the form of our criminal justice system; but before expounding on Alexander’s New Jim Crow it is essential to discuss what exactly The Old Jim Crow was. The old Jim Crow was a system of segregation and discrimination that barred African Americans Americans from a statusRead MoreDetermination Of The Civil Rights Movement1325 Words   |  6 Pagesgoing on during this time when it pertains to politics, housing, public accommodations, and schools. It highlighted major issue that was a problem in America but especially Atlanta, Georgia. Atlanta at this time became a huge stomping ground for African American leaders because of the massive wave of blacks that lived in the city as well as the issue that needed to be address to end segregation. The NAACP began to expand their leadership into smaller components. A lot of local black officials becameRead MoreEffects Of The Civil Rights Movement910 Words   |  4 Pagesconflict after African Americans in Southern states were mistreated and had very different rights as the white. Some of the inequalities that African Americans had to face include the opportunities for housing, education and e mployment, the right to vote, and discrimination in several public places. This also gave the Supreme Court a new aspect since discrimination and segregation were legal. With a great leader such as Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. protesting for equal rights, the African Americas wereRead MoreLyndon B. Johnsons Explaination of our Fundamental Rights in â€Å"American Promise: Message to Congress†1206 Words   |  5 PagesVoting rights have been a constant struggle for most people in America. During the eighteenth century, only property owning white men were able to vote. This means that the colored individuals and women were excluded from the basic right to vote. The southern white society deeply opposed the idea of African Americans voting, creating discriminating legislations furthering the problem in a society dominated by White Americans. Lyndon B. Johnson outlines the differences between the law and justice

Dissociative Identity Disorder and Communication Essay

In this critical reflection paper, I will aim to discuss ways in which those diagnosed with Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) attempt to communicate with their co-personalities, also how those with DID sort through the multi-personality layers within themselves to aim for a sense of normality, calmness and co-existence. Communication is an important part of those diagnosed with Dissociative Identity Disorders. DID can commonly be described as a severe condition in which two or more distinct identities, or personality states, are present in—and alternately take control of—an individual, John Wiley (2012). The process involved in breaking down the layers of personality begins with looking at the Russian Matouschka dolls analogy,†¦show more content†¦This system can clearly be encompassed in the ‘system doll’ Kaye (2013, pp.86). Kaye clearly outlines the system of a Dissociative Identity Disorder by saying that, ‘people can influence the way these systems or organisations will develop or deteriorate’. Assagioli (1984), developed the theoretical base of psychosynthesis to assist those with DID to break down the barriers of dissociative symptoms. Psychosynthesis is described as being closely related to Existential therapy – a kind of psychotherapy that emphasizes the development of a sense of self-direction through choice, awareness, and acceptance of individual responsibility, Schneider. K Rollo. M, (2012). Assagioli (1984), explains that Psychosynthesis ‘aims to promote growth and to integrate this personality, to coordinate various personality aspects, to resolve inner conflicts and create a sense of harmony’. In a sense, Assagioli utilises inter-personalShow MoreRelatedCommon Stressor Related Disorders ( Disorder )913 Words   |  4 PagesStressor-related disorders are expressed in many forms throughout different individuals. Common stressor-related disorders are one trauma and stressor-related disorder or anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive or related disorder, or dissociative disorder. One particular stress-related disorder that has caught my attention is dissociative identity disorder. Dissociative identity disorder is characterized by having two or more personalities within an individual. Typically, one is dominant and presentRead MoreMultiple Personalities Disorder Analysis1037 Words   |  5 PagesMultiple Personality Disorders (MPD), or what has been re-clas sified, Dissociative Idenitfy Disorder (DID), is a deliberating and frightening illness for the DID individual; as well as their friends and family. The meaning of DID (Dissoiative Idenity Disorder) usually means that a person has more than two self-states or identities, which often times appear like entirely different personalities. When one is under the control of one identity, the person usually is unable to remember some of the eventsRead MorePsychological Disorders And Obsessive Compulsive Disorder1123 Words   |  5 PagesPsychological disorder or mental disorder is a mind imbalance involving behaviors, thoughts and emotions that cause significant distress to self or other. Great distress means that the person is unable to meet their needs, is a danger to himself and others, or the person is unable to function properly. There are various categories of psychological disorders including, anxiety disorder, somatoform disorder, dissociative disorder, mood disorder, schizophreni a and other psychotic disorders, personalityRead MoreEssay on Dissociative Identity Disorder800 Words   |  4 PagesDissociative Identity Disorder Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is a severe condition in which two or more distinct identities or personality states are present in, and alternately take control of an individual. People who suffer from DID often have no recollection of what they have done or said while under the influence of the alternate personalities. Friends, family, and the person with the disorder often have a hard time dealing with DID, because of the sporadic nature of the personalitiesRead MoreBipolar Disorder : A Deep Rooted Sickness1527 Words   |  7 PagesBipolar disorder is a deep rooted sickness. Scenes of lunacy and depression in the long run can happen again in the event that you don t get treatment. Numerous individuals infrequently keep on having manifestations, even in the wake of getting treatment for their bipolar issue. Some types of bipolar issue are: Bipolar I disorder involves periods of severe mood episodes from mania to depression. Bipolar II issue is a milder type of state of mind height, including milder scenes of hypomania thatRead More Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD) Essay1153 Words   |  5 PagesMultiple Personality Disorder (MPD) Introduction: Multiple personalities is a dissociative condition in which an individual’s personality is apparently split into two or more distinct sub-personalities, each of which may become dominant at different times. People with multiple personality disorder suffer from internal chaos, roller-coaster emotions and terrible memories. They also present confusing confusing and contradictory images to their family and friends. But in spite of all this, MPDRead MorePsychological Disorders And Therapy Methods1223 Words   |  5 PagesPsychological Disorders and Therapies Different types of psychological disorders and therapy methods will be discussed in this essay. Psychological disorders are categorized and defined in the â€Å"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders† (DSM). The most recent edition of the DSM is the DSM-V published in May, 2013. (1) The methods of therapy utilized for the treatment of psychological disorders are dependent on the training of the therapist and the most appropriate method of treatmentRead MoreVictims Of Dissociative Identity Disorder1927 Words   |  8 Pagesthat dissociative identity disorder is caused by heavy stress or enormous trauma in a person’s childhood. Usually involving unpredictable and unexplained behaviors as well as poor communication, these events are usually caused by adults who play a significant role in the victim’s life; such as parents, siblings, or other important family members. During this time of neglect, if a young child is not receiving support or care in t heir time of need, they are susceptible to developing this disorder. ThisRead More Dissociative Identity Disorder Essay1535 Words   |  7 PagesDissociative Identity Disorder (DID), formerly known as Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD) is considered by the American Psychiatric Association to be one of 4 main kinds of dissociative disorders (DSM-IV): The essential feature of dissociative disorders is a disturbance or alteration in the normally integrative functions of identity, memory, or consciousness (8). If identity is the main function affected, the person is said to have DID. Most non-DID people have one identity comprised of manyRead MorePsychoanalysis of Victor Frankenstein Frankenstein by Mary Shelley1246 Words   |  5 Pagesbeginning of the story, it seems that Frankenstein is simply a scientist chasing a pipe dream of finding the key to eternal life, but closer analysis of the text reveals that Frankenstein is not sane, and possibly suffering from one of many psychology disorders, causing hallucinations and psychosis, it is my contention, that Victor Frankenstein is his monster. Sanity is defined as the quality or state of being sane or the soundness or health of mind by the Merriam-Webster dictionary. Victor Frankenstein

First And Second Reconstructions Essay Example For Students

First And Second Reconstructions Essay The First and Second Reconstructions held out the great promise of rectifying racial injustices in America. The FirstReconstruction, emerging out of the chaos of the Civil War had as its goals equality for Blacks in voting, politics, and use of public facilities. The Second Reconstruction emerging out of the booming economy of the 1950s, had as its goals, integration, the end of Jim Crow and the more amorphous goal of making America a biracial democracy where, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave holders will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood. Even though both movements, were borne of high hopes they failed in bringing about their goals. Born in hope, they died in despair, as both movements saw many of their gains washed away. I propose to examine why they failed in realizing their goals. My thesis is that failure to incorporate economic justice for Blacks in both movements led to the failure of the First and Second Reconstruction. The First R econstruction came after the Civil War and lasted till 1877. The political, social, and economic conditions after the Civil War defined the goals of the First Reconstruction. At this time the Congress was divided politically on issues that grew out of the Civil War: Black equality, rebuilding the South, readmitting Southern states to Union, and deciding who would control government.1 Socially, the South was in chaos. Newly emancipated slaves wandered the South after having left their former masters, and the White population was spiritually devastated, uneasy about what lay ahead. Economically, the South was also devastated: plantations lay ruined, railroads torn up, the system of slave labor in shambles, and cities burnt down. Theeconomic condition of ex-slaves after the Civil War was just as uncertain; many had left former masters and roamed thehighways.2 Amid the post Civil War chaos, various political groups were scrambling to further their agendas. First, Southern Democrats, a p arty comprised of leaders of the confederacy and other wealthy Southern whites, sought to end what they perceived as Northern domination of the South. They also sought to institute Black Codes, by limiting the rights of Blacks to move, vote, travel, and change jobs,3 which like slavery, would provide an adequate and cheap labor supply for plantations. Second, Moderate Republicans wanted to pursue a policy of reconciliation between North and South, but at the same timeensure slavery was abolished.4 Third, Radical Republicans, comprised of Northern politicians, were strongly opposed to slavery, unsympathetic to the South, wanted to protect newly free slaves, and keep there majority in Congress.5 The fourth political element, at the end of the Civil War was President Andrew Johnson whose major goal was unifying the nation. The fifth element were various fringe groups such as, abolitionists and Quakers. Strongly motivated by principle and a belief in equality, they believed that Blacks needed equality in American society, although they differed on what the nature of thatshould be.6 The Northern Radical Republicans, with a majority in Congress, emerged as the political group that set the goals for Reconstruction which was to prevent slavery from rising again in the South. At first, the Radical Republicans thought this could be accomplished by outlawing slavery with the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment. But Southern Democrats in their quest to restore their rule in the South brought back slavery in all but name, by passing Black Codes as early as 1865. Both Moderate Republicans and Radical Republicans in Congress reacted. Joining together in 1866, they passed a bill to extend thelife and responsibilities of the Freedmens Bureau to protect newly freed slaves against the various Black Codes. President Johnson vetoed the bill, but Radical and Moderate Republicans eventually were able to pass it.7 The Black Codes and President Johnsons veto of all Reconstruction legi slation that was unfavorable to the South causedModerate and Radical Republicans to change their goals from just ending slavery to seeking political equality and voting rightsfor Blacks.8 The new goals, were based on humanitarian and political considerations. Northerners had grown increasingly sympathetic to the plight of the Blacks in the South following numerous well publicized incidents in which innocent Blacks were harassed, beaten, and killed.9 The extension of suffrage to Black males was a political move by the Republicans in Congress who believed that Blacks would form the backbone of the Republican Party in the South, preventing Southern Democrats from winning elections in Southern states, and uphold the Republican majority in Congress after the Southern States rejoined theUnion. As one Congressman from the North bluntly put it, It prevents the States from going into the hands of the rebels, and giving them the President and the Congress for the next forty years.10 Until the 1890s, this policy of achieving equality through granting political rights to Blacks worked moderately well. During Reconstruction, newly freed slaves voted in large numbers in the South. Of the 1,330,000 people registered to vote under Reconstruction Acts 703,000 were Black and only 627,000 were White.11 Even after 1877, when federal troops were withdrawn12, Jim Crow laws did not fully emerge in the South and Blacks continued to vote in high numbers and hold various state and federal offices. Between 1877 and 1900, a total of ten Blacks were elected to serve in the US Congress.13 Thisoccurred because Southern Democrats forged a unlikely coalition with Black voters against White laborers14. Under this paternalistic order Southern Democrats agreed to protect Blacks political rights in the South in return for Black votes15. But voting and election figures hide the true nature of Black political power during and after Reconstruction. Few Blacks held elective offices in relation to the ir percentage of the Souths population.16 And those in office usually did not wield the power, which during Reconstruction continued to reside with Moderate and Radical Republicans in Congress, whites who ran Southern state governments, and federal troops. Emancipated slaves had little to do with either fashioning Reconstruction policy or its implementation. Blacks political rights were dependent upon alliances made with groups with conflicting interests White Northern Republicans and White elites in the South.17 Though they pursued political equality for Blacks, their goals were shaped more by self-interest than for concern for Black equality. By 1905 Blacks lost their right to vote. In Louisiana alone the number of Black voters fell from 130,334 in 1896 to 1,342in 1904.18 The number of elected Black public officials dropped to zero. The disenfranchisement of Blacks was accomplished through good character tests, poll taxes, White primaries, literacy tests, grandfather clauses, and intimidation. By 1905, whatever success politically and socially the Reconstruction had enjoyed had been wiped out.19 Following on the heels of disenfranchisement came implementation of comprehensive Jim Crow laws segregating steamboats, toilets, ticket windows and myriad of other previously non-segregated public places. 20 Two historians, C. Van Woodward and William Julius Wilson, both pin point specific events such as, recessions, class conflicts, imperialist expansion to explain the rise of Jim Crow. Wilsons21 and Woodwards22 analysis is lacking because the United States has undergone many recessions and many times minority groups such as Jews, Irish, and Eastern Europeans and have been blamed for taking away the jobs of the lower-class; and yet these groups have not had their votes stripped away from them and did not have an elaborate set of laws constructed to keep them segregated in society as Blacks have. The only community of people in the Untied States who have been victims of systematic, long-term, violent, White Supremacy have been Native Americans. And Native Americans, like Afro-Americans, have been predominately powerless economically and politically. This points to the conclusion that the systemic demise of the First Reconstruction stems from the failure of Reconstruction leaders to include economic justice for Blacks as a goal; thus dooming the Reconstruction movement from the outset. The failure of pursuing a policy of economic redistribution forced Blacks into fragile political alliances that quickly disintegrated (as can be seen in 1877 and 1896); Blacks were forced to rely on the Radical Republicans and Federal troops togive them their rights and later their former slave masters, the Southern Democrats, to safeguard their rights.23 The disintegration of these agreements were caused directly by the events that Woodward and Wilson point to, but these political agreements were inherently fragile and would have inevitably unraveled because of t heir very nature. These political alliances had conflicting interests. The poor sharecropper and the White elites of the South were inherently unequal. The former slaves were looked on not as equals, but as inferior.24 Whatever well meaning reforms were instituted were done so paternalistically and for Southern Democrats own interests. And when an alliance with Blacks no longer served the interests of the whites they were easily abandoned. When the Blacks agreement with the Southern Democrats unraveled Blacks were left economically naked except for the loin cloth of political rights. But this loin cloth was easily stripped from them, because lacking economic power, they were unable to make other political allies, their economic position allowed them to be easily intimidated by White land owners, they had no way to lobby the government, no way to leave the South, few employment opportunities, and for many Blacks no education.25 The leaders of the Reconstruction failed to underezd tha t without economic justice Blacks would be forced into a dependency on the White power structure to protect their rights and when these rights no longer servedthe interests of this power structure they were easily stripped away. Reconstruction Acts and Constitutional Amendments offered little protection to stop this stripping away of Black political rights. The Reconstruction leaders failed to underezd the relationship between political rights and economic power, if they hadthey might not have rejected measures that could have provided former slaves with the economic power to safeguard their political rights. Two possibilities presented themselves at the outset of the First Reconstruction. A Quaker and Radical Republican Congressman from Pennsylvania, Thaddeus Stevens, proposed that the North seize the land holdings of the Souths richest land owners as a war indemnity and redistribute the land giving each newly freed Negro adult male a mule and forty acres.26 Thaddeus Stevens a bitt er foe of the South,27 explained that a free society had to be based on land redistribution: Southern Society has more the features of aristocracy then ademocracy.. It is impossible that any practical equality of rights can exist where a few thousand men monopolize the who landed property. How can Republican institutions, free schools, free churches, free social intercourse exist in a mingledcommunity of nabobs and serfs, of owners of twenty-thousand-acre manors, with lordly palaces, and the occupants of narrow hutsinhabited by low White trash?Stevens plan in the Republican Press though drew unfavorable responses. The plan was called brash and unfair. Only one newspaper endorsed it and that was the French paper La Temps which said, There cannot be real emancipation for men who do no possess at least a small portion of soil.28 When the bill was introduced in Congress it was resoundingly defeated by a majority of Republicans. Stevens was alone in underezding the tremendous institution al changes that would have to take place to guarantee the emancipation of a people. If the former slave did not have his own land he would be turned into a serf inhis own nation a stranger to the freedoms guaranteed to him and a slave all but in name. The other alternative the leaders of Reconstruction had was expanding the Freedmens Bureau from a temporary to a permanent institution that educated all former slaves and ensured that former slaves had a viable economic base that did not exploit them. Instead, the Freedmens Bureau lasted merely five years, and only five million dollars were appropriated to it. Its mission to educate and protect the Freedmen was meet in only a small way in this short amount of time and when the Freedmens Bureau shutdown it left the education of former slaves to local governments which allocated limited if any funds.29 Although proposed by a few Republicans the Freedmens Bureau also refused to set a minimum wage in the South to ensure that former slaves received a fair wage from their former slave masters. Instead, the Freedmens Bureau was instrumental in spearheading the formation of sharecropping by encouraging both former slaves and plantation owners to enter into sharecropping agreements.30 By the time the Bureau ceased operations in 1870, the sharecropping system was the dominant arrangement in the South. This arrangement continued the poverty and oppression of Blacks in the South. As one Southerngovernor said about sharecropping, The Negro skins the land and the landlord skins the Negro.31 The Freedmens Bureau missed a great opportunity; had its mission been broadened, its funding increased, and its power been extended, it could have educated the Black population and guaranteed some type of land reform in the South. Because neither Thaddeus Stevens plan for land redistribution or an expansion of the Freedmens Bureau took place, Blacks were left after slavery much as they were before, landless and uneducated. In the absence of an economic base for Blacks, three forces moved in during the 1890s wiping out the political successes of Reconstruction: the white sheets of White supremacy, the blue suits of politicians all tooeager to unify whites with racism, and the black robes of the judiciary in cases like Plessy vs. Ferguson in 1896 stripped awayBlacks social and political rights. The Civil Rights movement came nearly ninety years after the First Reconstruction. The goals of the Second Reconstruction involved at first tearing down the legal Jim Crow of the South, but by the March on Washington in 1964 the goals had changed to guaranteeing all Americans equality of opportunity, integration both social and political, and the more amorphous goal of a biracial democracy.32 But the goals did not include the need to transform the economic condition of Blacks. Instead they emphasized the need to transform the political and social condition of Blacks.33 At the beginning, the Civil Rights Movement sought solutions to racial injustice through laws and used the Federal courtsto secure them. The Supreme Court set the stage in 1954 with Brown vs. The Board of Education of Topeka Kansas: the Brown decision focused the attention of dominant Black institutions such as CORE (Congress On Racial Equality) and the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) on fighting the illegality of segregation in Congress and courts. Subsequent organizations that came to play larger roles in the Civil Rights Movement such as, SNCC (Students Non-violent Coordinating Committee) and SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Council) fell into this same patterncombating mainly legal segregation. Although they pioneered different tactics sit-ins, boycotts, and marches, the goal was to focus attention on getting rid of Jim Crow.34 The Civil Rights movement, successfully pressured Congress and the President to enact the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act. The Civil Rights Movement also b rought about a fundamental shift in public opinion; de jure racial discrimination became a moral wrong for many Americans. The Civil Rights Movement by 1965 had broken the back of legal Jim Crow in the South. However, in the North, Blacks living under de facto segregation by economic and racist conditions. No! You Cannot Come in EssayEndnotes1 Eric Foner, Reconstruction: Americas Unfinished Revolution (New York: Harper and Row, 1988) p.228. 2 Ibid. pp.124-125. 3 Eli Ginzberg and Alfred S. Eichner, Troublesome Presence: Democracy and Black Americans (London: Transaction Publishers, 1993) p. 148. 4 Ibid. p. 152. 5 Eric Foner, Reconstruction: Americas Unfinished Revolution (New York: Harper and Row, 1988) pp.229-231. 6 Daniel J. Mcinerney, The Fortunate Heirs of Freedom: Abolition and the Republican Party (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994) p.151. 7 Eric Foner, Reconstruction: Americas Unfinished Revolution (New York: Harper and Row, 1988) pp.228-251. 8 The transformation of the goals of Reconstruction was caused by Johnsons veto of nearly every Reconstruction bill. Thisforced Moderates to join the Radical Republicans in an alliance against President Johnson. Eli Ginzberg and Alfred S. Eichner,Troublesome Presence: Democracy and Black Americans (London: Transaction Publishers, 1993) p.153. 9 Ibid. p.159. 10 Ibid. p. 161. 11 A total of twenty-two Blacks served in the House of Representatives during Reconstruction. C. Eric Lincoln, The Negro Pilgrimage in America (New York: Bantam, 1967) p.65. 12 In the Presidential election of 1876, the Democrat Samuel J. Tilden, captured a majority of the popular vote and lead in theelectoral college results. But the electoral votes of three Southern States still under Republican rule were in doubt, as Ginzberg writes, In all three states the Republicans controlled the returning boards which had to certify the election results, and in all three states they certified their own parties ticket. As the history books reveal, the crisis was finally overcome when the Southern Democrats agreed to support the Republican Candidate Rutherford B. Hayes, as a part of a larger compromise (The Compromise of 1877). Hayes promised in return to withdraw Federal troops from the South. Eli Ginzberg and Alfred S. Eichner, Troublesome Presence: Democracy and Black Americans (London: Transaction Publishers, 1993) pp. 182-183. 13 C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974) p. 54. 14 Southern Democrats were comprised of Southern elites and formed a coalition with Blacks to prevent poor Whites from passing economic initiatives such as free silver, the break up of monopolies, and labor laws. Gerald Gaither, Blacks and the Populist Revolt: Ballots and Bigotry In the New South (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms, 1972) p.299. 15 The Coalition between poor Whites was based on a paternalistic order as C. Vann Woodward explains, Blacks continued to vote in large numbers and hold minor offices and a few seats in Congress, but this could be turned to account by the Southern White Democrats who had trouble with White lower-class rebellion. C. Vann Woodward, Origins of a New South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1951) p.254. 16 Howard N. Robinowitz, Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era ( Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982) p.396. 17 Ibid. p.398. 18 C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974) p. 85. 19 William Julius Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980) p.63. 20 Until 1900, the only type of Jim Crow law (a law which legally segregates races) prevalent in the South was one applying topassengers aboard trains in the first class section. C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974) p. 67. For Endnotes 21-48, see the original copy of this paperhttp://dberger.student.harvard.edu/papers/t2.htm